Social Determinants of Health Feb 26, 2013
Introduction
Diabetes Mellitus is a chronic disease, which occurs when the pancreas either ceases to produce insulin, produces very little, or the body cells fail to respond to the insulin produced. As a result, the glucose in the blood cannot be absorbed into the body cells, resulting to excess glucose in the blood. Diabetes Mellitus is a chronic disease, which leads to other serious comorbidities, for instance stroke, blindness, renal failure and heart diseases among other health complications. Early detection of diabetes is critical for proper management of the disease to prolong life and prevent complications by the comorbidities (World Health Organization, 2003, p.2).
There are three types of diabetes: type I diabetes also known as juvenile diabetes which presents in children at birth and is insulin dependent. This is the type of diabetes whereby the pancreas produces little or no insulin; therefore the patient has to be injected with insulin. Type II diabetes also known as non-insulin dependent, occurs in both children and adults and it is considered to be milder than type I diabetes.
Type II diabetes can be controlled with diet and exercise and when these two fail, medication can be used. Although type II is considered milder than type I diabetes, if control measures are not applied, the consequences are as serious as those caused by type I diabetes. Another type of diabetes is called gestational diabetes, which develops during pregnancy but resolves after delivery. It is however believed that those women, who develop gestational diabetes, are likely to develop type II diabetes later in life (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012).
Diabetes Mellitus is an epidemic in the United States with 26 million people 20 years or older having the disease in 2011, and 22 million in 2010, depicting an increase of 4 million within one year (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012). It is one of the leading causes of death in the United States having caused 231, 404 deaths in 2007 alone (American Diabetes Association, 2007).
Type II diabetes is the most common prevalent type. It is a chronic disease among many Americans but the minority African Americans are at a higher risk than the majority Whites. Research has shown that the risk of diabetes in African Americans is two times more than their white counterparts (Agency for Health Care and Quality, 2001). According to the American Diabetes Association, in 2007-2009, 12.6% African Americans 20 years and older had type II diabetes. The disease also affects 7.1% of their white counterparts of the same age group in comparison (American Diabetes Association, 2009)
This paper’s focus is the individual and social determinants of type II diabetes in African Americans aged 20 years and above. There are a lot of individual and social factors which cause health disparities especially among the minorities. The social determinants of health are responsible for the inequalities in health and the unfair and avoidable difference in health among people in a society (World Health Organization, 2013).
Discussion
The social and individual factors in peoples’ lives are a huge determinant of their health. Individuals might not be able to control the social circumstances surrounding them; therefore they should not be blamed for their ill health. However, they can control certain intrapersonal factors like attitudes, choices and decision making. Individual characteristics and behaviors are foundations to good health in a society. These individual characteristics and behaviors are the choices and decisions that an individual makes in life, which impact their health either in a negative or a positive manner. As far as type II diabetes is concerned, diet and exercise are very important aspects, which aid in its prevention and control. The choices of food to ingest and the decision to either exercise or not to exercise are influenced by individual behavior (Owen, Pettman, Haas, Viney & Misan, 2010).
People strive to achieve social status in society. African American Women are known to adore beauty and fashion and that is how they gain their status among women (Richardson, 2012). They reject healthy habits to maintain beauty, a choice which puts them at risk for type II diabetes. For instance a study conducted by Dr. Amy McMichael, a dermatologist in Wake Forest University School of Medicine found out that, 40% of African American women avoid exercise to maintain their hair style (Nelson, 2012). This is because sweat from physical activities will wet the hair messing the expensive hair style (Brown, 2009). In addition, women spend the money meant for food to purchase expensive fashionable clothes, make hair and nails (ING foundation, 2008). At the end of the day, the money remaining will not be enough to purchase healthy grocery, instead they turn to unhealthy fast food, which puts them at a higher risk for type II diabetes than the White women.
Physical environment: is another important determinant of health. Safety of the physical environment where people live will determine if people can conduct outdoor physical activities for instance walking or running outside as part of exercise to keep healthy and prevent type II diabetes. Majority of African Americans reside in low income disadvantaged areas where violence has thrived rendering these areas unsafe. For that reason, those who are willing to exercise outdoors are prone to attacks. Poor economic conditions motivate crime. There is a lot of drug dealing as a form of raising income, therefore drug related violence and gun violence in the impoverished environments is the order of the day. Statistics show that, although blacks are a minority in the US at approximately 12% of the population, it is believed that they are responsible for half of the crimes in the United States (Schoenfield, 1998).
Economic status: separates the rich and the poor. Wealthy people are mostly people with high income, who also belong to a high social status. Type II diabetes is an expensive disease to prevent and control. Higher income and social status are linked to better health because the wealthy can afford healthy food, health clubs like gyms, personal trainers and many more other aspects of life associated with healthy living, which are important to type II diabetes prevention and control. In addition they can afford to live in the suburban residential areas where safety is almost guaranteed. Therefore they exercise outdoors without fear of any physical harm. People with high income are also able to afford high cost health insurance coverage, for that reason they can afford primary care which includes annual physical exams, during which type II diabetes screening is done. Primary care is critical in prevention and early detection of not only type II diabetes but other chronic diseases. There is a lot of poverty surrounding the blacks in United States. Statistics from the National Poverty Center (NPC) indicate that African Americans are poorer than the white people. In 2010, 27.4% African Americans were poor compared to 9.9% poor Whites, a 17.5% margin (University of Michigan, 2013). For that reason, African Americans do not afford to enroll themselves in health clubs like gymnastics or pay for personal training like the wealthy whites do. In addition, poor African Americans have a poor diet because they cannot afford healthy foods (bread for the world Institute, 2012). Most of them have turned to seeking government assistance in form of food stamps to be able to afford food.
This clearly indicates that African Americans are at a high risk of type II diabetes because poverty does not allow them to afford healthy lifestyles. Poverty also drives them to working long hours and for some, more than one job to make ends meet. Some take it a step further to hold jobs, attend college and raise families. So, by the end of the day they are not only exhausted but have no time left to exercise. Unlike the wealthy Whites who work the hours of 9 a.m. to 5.p.m have attained a college degree and do not have to work a second job. They might have gymnastics in the basement of their homes or have a choice of exercising in the morning before work, because time permits or could do so after working hours because time still allows.
Education : can lead to improved health because educated people have acquired health related knowledge and healthy behaviors. Education on one hand, can improve the economics of individuals through improved employment opportunities hence increased income. With income, families can make better healthy choices in terms of food, exercise and management of medical care, which are essential to preventing type II diabetes. On the other hand, education places people in higher social status, which increases social support from people of higher social hierarchy in society. Low education levels are linked to poor health and chronic diseases like type II diabetes.
African American illiteracy dates back to the days of slavery before the civil war when black slaves were forbidden from learning how to read and write and others were also forbidden to teach them. By the end of civil war, 80% of black children aged nine years and older were illiterates compared to 12% white children of the same age range (Collin & Margo, 1997). Majority Blacks have continued to remain illiterate or acquire low-level education due to the persistent barriers involved (Matlock Advertising & Public Relations and Warner Associates, 2001, p21,22 &26). To begin with, their parents are under-educated or illiterate and are faced with challenges to assist their children with homework.
Racism: in the United States is another social factor which influences health. Racism has led to discrimination of minority blacks, leading to constraint of their opportunities and resources, rendering them vulnerable to ill health. Unable to access quality education, healthcare and other basic resources, African Americans have continued to be poorer than their White counterparts. Poverty is a major source of inequality in a society. Therefore, while the unmarginalized whites have access to reasonable health clubs through employer discounts, the blacks do not because they are under-educated and do not have the opportunities to hold a white collar jobs which comes with those benefits. Statistics show that 15.9% of blacks were unemployed compared to 7.2% non-Hispanic Whites in 2011 (Bureau of labor statistics, 2012). In the same year, 11.1% blacks were employed and 67.3% Whites were employed.
Social support networks: which exist in many communities, are very important in determining one’s health. Greater support from families, friends and communities is linked to better health because those people with a lot of support from their families, friends and community when they are ill, are likely to get better quicker than the one without support. As far as type 2 diabetes is concerned, a family that cooperates towards making healthy choices and supports each other in exercising protects itself from acquiring the type 2 diabetes. African Americans lack strong family ties because of high rates of broken families due to divorce and violence, leaving them without social support network hence vulnerable to ill health. Statistics from U.S. census bureau shows that in 2009, 30% of African American women got divorced during the first ten years of their first marriage. While 20% of the white women were divorced during the first ten years of their first marriage (U.S. Census bureau, 2008), depicting stronger family ties and stability among whites than blacks. People with type II diabetes, require support to eat healthy food and exercise to maintain healthy sugar levels in the blood, a step which prolongs life and prevents diabetes related complications. The lack of support networks puts African Americans at higher risk than other minorities hence decreasing their life expectancy.
Culture and religion: of a community, including the traditions, values and beliefs have influence in health as well. Communities whose beliefs deter them from eating certain unhealthy food thrive in good health. For instance the Seventh day Adventists, due to religious beliefs, does not eat certain type of meat for instance pork. They also neither use drugs nor consume alcohol. African Americans have a culture to like fried food, mostly chicken. Fried foods are very unhealthy. They are the highest causes of obesity and subsequently type II diabetes. The food choices made by African Americans puts them at a higher risk of type 2 diabetes than the white people who like to bake their food (Krishnan, Coogan, Boggs, Rosenberg, & Palmer, 2010).
Access to healthcare: is another important determinant of health. Most poor blacks do not have access to healthcare because they cannot afford health insurance coverage. Approximately 20.8 percent of African Americans have no health insurance compared to 16.3 of all Americans (Robinson & Finegold, 2012). The uninsured do not seek primary care, which is critical for disease prevention (Kaiser family foundation, 2012). Majority of the uninsured African Americans have turned to the government sponsored Medicaid, but they still do not seek primary care because they cannot afford co-payments (Centers for Medicare & Medicaid, 2011). Poverty is a huge stumbling block to the minority African Americans access to health services, hence delay in receiving treatment for type II diabetes and unnecessary hospitalization.
Conclusion
The social determinants of health are the conditions surrounding one’s environment. They are the circumstances which are shaped by the even or uneven distribution of resources in the society. Uneven distribution of resources among the African Americans is the main reason why this minority group has been crippled by poverty and chronic diseases. Type II diabetes is a chronic disease which affects African Americans more than their White counterparts. The social determinants of health have not favored the blacks in the United States, because they have been influenced by the policies made and politics. Blacks have been marginalized through racism, lack of education, lack of access to healthcare, poverty and unfair distribution of other basic resources. Living with type II diabetes is expensive and African Americans social economic status is poor making type II diabetes an unbearable burden. Due to poor economic status, African American have to access to preventive care which could lead to early detection of type II diabetes and avoid unnecessary hospitalization.
References Cited
Agency for Health Care and Quality, (2001). Diabetes disparities among racial and ethnic Minorities. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved from http://www.ahrq.gov/research/diabdisp.htm#HighDiabetes
American Diabetes Association, (2009). Diabetes statistics. Retrieved from http://www.diabetes.org/diabetes-basics/diabetes-statistics/
Bread for the world Institute, (2012). Hunger and poverty hurt African-American women and children. Retrieved from http://www.bread.org/what-we-do/resources/fact-sheets/african-american-2012.pdf
Brown, H. W. (2009). African American women’s hair issues and engagement in physical activity. AARP. Retrieved from http://assets.aarp.org/rgcenter/health/aahair.pdf
Bureau of Labor Statistics, (2012). Racial and ethnic characteristics of the U.S. labor force, 2011. United Stated Department of Labor. http://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2012/ted_20120905.htm
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, (2012). Diabetes & pregnancy. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/Features/DiabetesPregnancy/
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, (2012). Diabetes public health resource. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/surveillance/index.htm
Centers for Medicare and Medicaid, (2011). Premiums, copayments, & other cost sharing. Medicaid. Retrieved from http://www.medicaid.gov/Medicaid-CHIP-Program-Information/By-Topics/Cost-Sharing/Cost-Sharing.html
Collins, W. & Margo, R. (1997). Historical perspectives on racial differences in schooling in the United States. Retrieved from http://ideas.repec.org/h/eee/educhp/1-03.html
ING Foundation, (2008). Black women need to control their spending. National Public Radio. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=95207126
Kaiser family foundation, (2012). Medicaid and the uninsured. Retrieved from http://www.kff.org/uninsured/upload/7806-05.pdf
Krishnan S, Coogan PF, Boggs DA, Rosenberg L, & Palmer JR, (2010). Consumption of restaurant foods and incidence of type 2 diabetes in African American women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Retrieved from http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/91/2/465.full
Krishnan S, Coogan PF, Boggs DA, Rosenberg L, & Palmer JR, (2010). Consumption of restaurant foods and incidence of type 2 diabetes in African American women. Pubmed. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20016014
Matlock Advertising & Public Relations and Warner P.A. Associates, (2001). Attitudes and barriers impacting the participation of African-American males in the University system of Georgia. University of Georgia. http://www.usg.edu/aami/External_Research_Report_and_Appendices.pdf
Nelson, S. (2012). African American women avoid exercise to maintain hairstyles. Huffington Post UK. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2012/12/19/african-american-women-avoid-exercise-maintain-hairstyles-_n_2328956.html
Owen K, Pettman T, Haas M, Viney R,& Misan G, (2010). Individual preferences for diet and exercise programmes. Pubmed. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19656436
Wilma Robinson W. & Finegold, K. (2012). The Affordable Care Act and African Americans. U.S. Department of Humans and Health Services. Retrieved from http://aspe.hhs.gov/health/reports/2012/ACA&African-Americans/rb.shtml
Richardson, J. (2012). Examining the sociopolitical context of beauty and self image in the lives of black women. LOYOLA. Retrieved from http://ecommons.luc.edu/luc_diss/313/
Schoenfield, C.G. (1998). Blacks and violent crime. Heinonline. Retrieved from http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/jpsych16&div=24&id=&page=
University of Michigan, (2013). Poverty in the United States. National Poverty Center (NPC). Retrieved from http://www.npc.umich.edu/poverty/
U.S. Census bureau, (2008). How divorce rates vary by race and ethnicity in the U.S. Divorcesience. Retrieved from http://divorcescience.org/2012/06/29/351/
World Health Organization, (2013). Social determinants of health. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/social_determinants/en/
World Health Organization, (2003, p. 2). Screening for type 2 diabetes. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/diabetes/publications/en/screening_mnc03.pdf
Diabetes Mellitus is a chronic disease, which occurs when the pancreas either ceases to produce insulin, produces very little, or the body cells fail to respond to the insulin produced. As a result, the glucose in the blood cannot be absorbed into the body cells, resulting to excess glucose in the blood. Diabetes Mellitus is a chronic disease, which leads to other serious comorbidities, for instance stroke, blindness, renal failure and heart diseases among other health complications. Early detection of diabetes is critical for proper management of the disease to prolong life and prevent complications by the comorbidities (World Health Organization, 2003, p.2).
There are three types of diabetes: type I diabetes also known as juvenile diabetes which presents in children at birth and is insulin dependent. This is the type of diabetes whereby the pancreas produces little or no insulin; therefore the patient has to be injected with insulin. Type II diabetes also known as non-insulin dependent, occurs in both children and adults and it is considered to be milder than type I diabetes.
Type II diabetes can be controlled with diet and exercise and when these two fail, medication can be used. Although type II is considered milder than type I diabetes, if control measures are not applied, the consequences are as serious as those caused by type I diabetes. Another type of diabetes is called gestational diabetes, which develops during pregnancy but resolves after delivery. It is however believed that those women, who develop gestational diabetes, are likely to develop type II diabetes later in life (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012).
Diabetes Mellitus is an epidemic in the United States with 26 million people 20 years or older having the disease in 2011, and 22 million in 2010, depicting an increase of 4 million within one year (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012). It is one of the leading causes of death in the United States having caused 231, 404 deaths in 2007 alone (American Diabetes Association, 2007).
Type II diabetes is the most common prevalent type. It is a chronic disease among many Americans but the minority African Americans are at a higher risk than the majority Whites. Research has shown that the risk of diabetes in African Americans is two times more than their white counterparts (Agency for Health Care and Quality, 2001). According to the American Diabetes Association, in 2007-2009, 12.6% African Americans 20 years and older had type II diabetes. The disease also affects 7.1% of their white counterparts of the same age group in comparison (American Diabetes Association, 2009)
This paper’s focus is the individual and social determinants of type II diabetes in African Americans aged 20 years and above. There are a lot of individual and social factors which cause health disparities especially among the minorities. The social determinants of health are responsible for the inequalities in health and the unfair and avoidable difference in health among people in a society (World Health Organization, 2013).
Discussion
The social and individual factors in peoples’ lives are a huge determinant of their health. Individuals might not be able to control the social circumstances surrounding them; therefore they should not be blamed for their ill health. However, they can control certain intrapersonal factors like attitudes, choices and decision making. Individual characteristics and behaviors are foundations to good health in a society. These individual characteristics and behaviors are the choices and decisions that an individual makes in life, which impact their health either in a negative or a positive manner. As far as type II diabetes is concerned, diet and exercise are very important aspects, which aid in its prevention and control. The choices of food to ingest and the decision to either exercise or not to exercise are influenced by individual behavior (Owen, Pettman, Haas, Viney & Misan, 2010).
People strive to achieve social status in society. African American Women are known to adore beauty and fashion and that is how they gain their status among women (Richardson, 2012). They reject healthy habits to maintain beauty, a choice which puts them at risk for type II diabetes. For instance a study conducted by Dr. Amy McMichael, a dermatologist in Wake Forest University School of Medicine found out that, 40% of African American women avoid exercise to maintain their hair style (Nelson, 2012). This is because sweat from physical activities will wet the hair messing the expensive hair style (Brown, 2009). In addition, women spend the money meant for food to purchase expensive fashionable clothes, make hair and nails (ING foundation, 2008). At the end of the day, the money remaining will not be enough to purchase healthy grocery, instead they turn to unhealthy fast food, which puts them at a higher risk for type II diabetes than the White women.
Physical environment: is another important determinant of health. Safety of the physical environment where people live will determine if people can conduct outdoor physical activities for instance walking or running outside as part of exercise to keep healthy and prevent type II diabetes. Majority of African Americans reside in low income disadvantaged areas where violence has thrived rendering these areas unsafe. For that reason, those who are willing to exercise outdoors are prone to attacks. Poor economic conditions motivate crime. There is a lot of drug dealing as a form of raising income, therefore drug related violence and gun violence in the impoverished environments is the order of the day. Statistics show that, although blacks are a minority in the US at approximately 12% of the population, it is believed that they are responsible for half of the crimes in the United States (Schoenfield, 1998).
Economic status: separates the rich and the poor. Wealthy people are mostly people with high income, who also belong to a high social status. Type II diabetes is an expensive disease to prevent and control. Higher income and social status are linked to better health because the wealthy can afford healthy food, health clubs like gyms, personal trainers and many more other aspects of life associated with healthy living, which are important to type II diabetes prevention and control. In addition they can afford to live in the suburban residential areas where safety is almost guaranteed. Therefore they exercise outdoors without fear of any physical harm. People with high income are also able to afford high cost health insurance coverage, for that reason they can afford primary care which includes annual physical exams, during which type II diabetes screening is done. Primary care is critical in prevention and early detection of not only type II diabetes but other chronic diseases. There is a lot of poverty surrounding the blacks in United States. Statistics from the National Poverty Center (NPC) indicate that African Americans are poorer than the white people. In 2010, 27.4% African Americans were poor compared to 9.9% poor Whites, a 17.5% margin (University of Michigan, 2013). For that reason, African Americans do not afford to enroll themselves in health clubs like gymnastics or pay for personal training like the wealthy whites do. In addition, poor African Americans have a poor diet because they cannot afford healthy foods (bread for the world Institute, 2012). Most of them have turned to seeking government assistance in form of food stamps to be able to afford food.
This clearly indicates that African Americans are at a high risk of type II diabetes because poverty does not allow them to afford healthy lifestyles. Poverty also drives them to working long hours and for some, more than one job to make ends meet. Some take it a step further to hold jobs, attend college and raise families. So, by the end of the day they are not only exhausted but have no time left to exercise. Unlike the wealthy Whites who work the hours of 9 a.m. to 5.p.m have attained a college degree and do not have to work a second job. They might have gymnastics in the basement of their homes or have a choice of exercising in the morning before work, because time permits or could do so after working hours because time still allows.
Education : can lead to improved health because educated people have acquired health related knowledge and healthy behaviors. Education on one hand, can improve the economics of individuals through improved employment opportunities hence increased income. With income, families can make better healthy choices in terms of food, exercise and management of medical care, which are essential to preventing type II diabetes. On the other hand, education places people in higher social status, which increases social support from people of higher social hierarchy in society. Low education levels are linked to poor health and chronic diseases like type II diabetes.
African American illiteracy dates back to the days of slavery before the civil war when black slaves were forbidden from learning how to read and write and others were also forbidden to teach them. By the end of civil war, 80% of black children aged nine years and older were illiterates compared to 12% white children of the same age range (Collin & Margo, 1997). Majority Blacks have continued to remain illiterate or acquire low-level education due to the persistent barriers involved (Matlock Advertising & Public Relations and Warner Associates, 2001, p21,22 &26). To begin with, their parents are under-educated or illiterate and are faced with challenges to assist their children with homework.
Racism: in the United States is another social factor which influences health. Racism has led to discrimination of minority blacks, leading to constraint of their opportunities and resources, rendering them vulnerable to ill health. Unable to access quality education, healthcare and other basic resources, African Americans have continued to be poorer than their White counterparts. Poverty is a major source of inequality in a society. Therefore, while the unmarginalized whites have access to reasonable health clubs through employer discounts, the blacks do not because they are under-educated and do not have the opportunities to hold a white collar jobs which comes with those benefits. Statistics show that 15.9% of blacks were unemployed compared to 7.2% non-Hispanic Whites in 2011 (Bureau of labor statistics, 2012). In the same year, 11.1% blacks were employed and 67.3% Whites were employed.
Social support networks: which exist in many communities, are very important in determining one’s health. Greater support from families, friends and communities is linked to better health because those people with a lot of support from their families, friends and community when they are ill, are likely to get better quicker than the one without support. As far as type 2 diabetes is concerned, a family that cooperates towards making healthy choices and supports each other in exercising protects itself from acquiring the type 2 diabetes. African Americans lack strong family ties because of high rates of broken families due to divorce and violence, leaving them without social support network hence vulnerable to ill health. Statistics from U.S. census bureau shows that in 2009, 30% of African American women got divorced during the first ten years of their first marriage. While 20% of the white women were divorced during the first ten years of their first marriage (U.S. Census bureau, 2008), depicting stronger family ties and stability among whites than blacks. People with type II diabetes, require support to eat healthy food and exercise to maintain healthy sugar levels in the blood, a step which prolongs life and prevents diabetes related complications. The lack of support networks puts African Americans at higher risk than other minorities hence decreasing their life expectancy.
Culture and religion: of a community, including the traditions, values and beliefs have influence in health as well. Communities whose beliefs deter them from eating certain unhealthy food thrive in good health. For instance the Seventh day Adventists, due to religious beliefs, does not eat certain type of meat for instance pork. They also neither use drugs nor consume alcohol. African Americans have a culture to like fried food, mostly chicken. Fried foods are very unhealthy. They are the highest causes of obesity and subsequently type II diabetes. The food choices made by African Americans puts them at a higher risk of type 2 diabetes than the white people who like to bake their food (Krishnan, Coogan, Boggs, Rosenberg, & Palmer, 2010).
Access to healthcare: is another important determinant of health. Most poor blacks do not have access to healthcare because they cannot afford health insurance coverage. Approximately 20.8 percent of African Americans have no health insurance compared to 16.3 of all Americans (Robinson & Finegold, 2012). The uninsured do not seek primary care, which is critical for disease prevention (Kaiser family foundation, 2012). Majority of the uninsured African Americans have turned to the government sponsored Medicaid, but they still do not seek primary care because they cannot afford co-payments (Centers for Medicare & Medicaid, 2011). Poverty is a huge stumbling block to the minority African Americans access to health services, hence delay in receiving treatment for type II diabetes and unnecessary hospitalization.
Conclusion
The social determinants of health are the conditions surrounding one’s environment. They are the circumstances which are shaped by the even or uneven distribution of resources in the society. Uneven distribution of resources among the African Americans is the main reason why this minority group has been crippled by poverty and chronic diseases. Type II diabetes is a chronic disease which affects African Americans more than their White counterparts. The social determinants of health have not favored the blacks in the United States, because they have been influenced by the policies made and politics. Blacks have been marginalized through racism, lack of education, lack of access to healthcare, poverty and unfair distribution of other basic resources. Living with type II diabetes is expensive and African Americans social economic status is poor making type II diabetes an unbearable burden. Due to poor economic status, African American have to access to preventive care which could lead to early detection of type II diabetes and avoid unnecessary hospitalization.
References Cited
Agency for Health Care and Quality, (2001). Diabetes disparities among racial and ethnic Minorities. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved from http://www.ahrq.gov/research/diabdisp.htm#HighDiabetes
American Diabetes Association, (2009). Diabetes statistics. Retrieved from http://www.diabetes.org/diabetes-basics/diabetes-statistics/
Bread for the world Institute, (2012). Hunger and poverty hurt African-American women and children. Retrieved from http://www.bread.org/what-we-do/resources/fact-sheets/african-american-2012.pdf
Brown, H. W. (2009). African American women’s hair issues and engagement in physical activity. AARP. Retrieved from http://assets.aarp.org/rgcenter/health/aahair.pdf
Bureau of Labor Statistics, (2012). Racial and ethnic characteristics of the U.S. labor force, 2011. United Stated Department of Labor. http://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2012/ted_20120905.htm
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, (2012). Diabetes & pregnancy. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/Features/DiabetesPregnancy/
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, (2012). Diabetes public health resource. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/surveillance/index.htm
Centers for Medicare and Medicaid, (2011). Premiums, copayments, & other cost sharing. Medicaid. Retrieved from http://www.medicaid.gov/Medicaid-CHIP-Program-Information/By-Topics/Cost-Sharing/Cost-Sharing.html
Collins, W. & Margo, R. (1997). Historical perspectives on racial differences in schooling in the United States. Retrieved from http://ideas.repec.org/h/eee/educhp/1-03.html
ING Foundation, (2008). Black women need to control their spending. National Public Radio. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=95207126
Kaiser family foundation, (2012). Medicaid and the uninsured. Retrieved from http://www.kff.org/uninsured/upload/7806-05.pdf
Krishnan S, Coogan PF, Boggs DA, Rosenberg L, & Palmer JR, (2010). Consumption of restaurant foods and incidence of type 2 diabetes in African American women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Retrieved from http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/91/2/465.full
Krishnan S, Coogan PF, Boggs DA, Rosenberg L, & Palmer JR, (2010). Consumption of restaurant foods and incidence of type 2 diabetes in African American women. Pubmed. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20016014
Matlock Advertising & Public Relations and Warner P.A. Associates, (2001). Attitudes and barriers impacting the participation of African-American males in the University system of Georgia. University of Georgia. http://www.usg.edu/aami/External_Research_Report_and_Appendices.pdf
Nelson, S. (2012). African American women avoid exercise to maintain hairstyles. Huffington Post UK. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2012/12/19/african-american-women-avoid-exercise-maintain-hairstyles-_n_2328956.html
Owen K, Pettman T, Haas M, Viney R,& Misan G, (2010). Individual preferences for diet and exercise programmes. Pubmed. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19656436
Wilma Robinson W. & Finegold, K. (2012). The Affordable Care Act and African Americans. U.S. Department of Humans and Health Services. Retrieved from http://aspe.hhs.gov/health/reports/2012/ACA&African-Americans/rb.shtml
Richardson, J. (2012). Examining the sociopolitical context of beauty and self image in the lives of black women. LOYOLA. Retrieved from http://ecommons.luc.edu/luc_diss/313/
Schoenfield, C.G. (1998). Blacks and violent crime. Heinonline. Retrieved from http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/jpsych16&div=24&id=&page=
University of Michigan, (2013). Poverty in the United States. National Poverty Center (NPC). Retrieved from http://www.npc.umich.edu/poverty/
U.S. Census bureau, (2008). How divorce rates vary by race and ethnicity in the U.S. Divorcesience. Retrieved from http://divorcescience.org/2012/06/29/351/
World Health Organization, (2013). Social determinants of health. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/social_determinants/en/
World Health Organization, (2003, p. 2). Screening for type 2 diabetes. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/diabetes/publications/en/screening_mnc03.pdf